At the center of this image, in between the glowing star-forming region at center left and the bright star at center right, is a bluish star with an unseen companion. This binary system is designated Cygnus X-1. Credit: DSS
Astronomers recently tracked a famous X-ray binary system through a change in its accretion state. What does this transition tell us about how black holes accrete gas?
An artist’s impression of an X-ray binary, in which a compact object accretes material from a companion star and emits X-rays during intermittent outbursts. Credit: ESO/L. Calçada; CC BY 4.0
Accretion Questions
X-ray binaries contain a star and a compact object — either a black hole or a neutron star. As the compact object ensnares gas from its stellar companion, a number of X-ray-bright features can emerge: the gas collects in a super-hot accretion disk and in a tenuous structure called the corona, and transient outflowing jets can appear.
Astronomers have discovered hundreds of X-ray binaries in the Milky Way, but there are still many open questions about the accretion process: What’s the origin of the corona, and how is it structured? Does it sit high above the compact object, or does it hover just above the surface of the disk? What’s the connection between the disk, the corona, and the jets?
One way to potentially answer these questions is to track an X-ray binary as it undergoes a state transition, shifting from producing more low-energy X-rays (“soft state”) to more high-energy X-rays (“hard state”). State transitions are thought to occur when a binary changes how it’s accreting gas, so observing a binary across state transitions can reveal whether the binary’s geometry changes in different accretion modes. Luckily, one of the best-studied X-ray binaries in our galaxy recently gave researchers a chance to study a state transition with a powerful observatory.
Astronomers have discovered hundreds of X-ray binaries in the Milky Way, but there are still many open questions about the accretion process: What’s the origin of the corona, and how is it structured? Does it sit high above the compact object, or does it hover just above the surface of the disk? What’s the connection between the disk, the corona, and the jets?
One way to potentially answer these questions is to track an X-ray binary as it undergoes a state transition, shifting from producing more low-energy X-rays (“soft state”) to more high-energy X-rays (“hard state”). State transitions are thought to occur when a binary changes how it’s accreting gas, so observing a binary across state transitions can reveal whether the binary’s geometry changes in different accretion modes. Luckily, one of the best-studied X-ray binaries in our galaxy recently gave researchers a chance to study a state transition with a powerful observatory.
Side view of the favored coronal geometry; a wedge-shaped corona (blue) lies parallel to the accretion disk (yellow). The arrows show the direction of the black hole’s spin. Credit: AAS Nova/Kerry Hensley
From Hard to Soft
Cygnus X-1 is an X-ray binary containing a 41-solar-mass supergiant star and a 21-solar-mass black hole. Over decades of monitoring, scientists have witnessed Cygnus X-1 repeatedly transition between soft and hard states. Phase switches happen randomly, and a phase can last weeks or years.
Since the launch of the new Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) spacecraft in 2021, Cygnus X-1 has held steady in a hard state. When researchers examined Cygnus X-1’s hard-state behavior with IXPE, they found that the X-ray emission was unexpectedly strongly polarized. In other words, the orientation of the X-rays as they traveled through space was more orderly than expected. Based on these observations, a “lamppost” model — in which the corona is situated above the black hole’s poles — is now disfavored. Instead, researchers favor a model in which the corona lies parallel to the accretion disk.
Since the launch of the new Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) spacecraft in 2021, Cygnus X-1 has held steady in a hard state. When researchers examined Cygnus X-1’s hard-state behavior with IXPE, they found that the X-ray emission was unexpectedly strongly polarized. In other words, the orientation of the X-rays as they traveled through space was more orderly than expected. Based on these observations, a “lamppost” model — in which the corona is situated above the black hole’s poles — is now disfavored. Instead, researchers favor a model in which the corona lies parallel to the accretion disk.
Left: Polarization degree and polarization angle for the hard (blue) and soft (red) states. Right: Polarization degree and angle as a function of energy for the soft state. Click to enlarge. Credit: Steiner et al. 2024
Soft-State Insights
In April 2023, Cygnus X-1 transitioned out of its long-lived hard state, giving researchers their first opportunity to study the system’s soft-state behavior with IXPE. James Steiner (Center for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian) and collaborators analyzed five epochs of IXPE data spread over two months. They found that while Cygnus X-1’s X-ray emission in the soft state is less polarized — 2% polarization compared to 4% in the hard state — the two states were otherwise similar; the polarization angle is parallel to the outflowing jet, and the degree of polarization increases with the temperature of the gas.
Using a fully relativistic spectral model, Steiner’s team found that the corona likely lies parallel to the accretion disk, just as in the hard state. While there are many similarities between the hard and soft states of this system, the team suggested that the majority of the polarized light in each state comes from a different source.
In the hard state, X-ray photons become polarized when they scatter off the corona. In the soft state, a substantial fraction of the X-ray photons from the accretion disk are bent back toward the disk by the black hole’s immense gravity, and they become polarized when they are reflected off the surface of the disk. In other words, X-rays from the accretion disk undergo gravitational lensing — showing that the same process that bends the light from distant galaxies is at work in a system billions of times less massive!
Using a fully relativistic spectral model, Steiner’s team found that the corona likely lies parallel to the accretion disk, just as in the hard state. While there are many similarities between the hard and soft states of this system, the team suggested that the majority of the polarized light in each state comes from a different source.
In the hard state, X-ray photons become polarized when they scatter off the corona. In the soft state, a substantial fraction of the X-ray photons from the accretion disk are bent back toward the disk by the black hole’s immense gravity, and they become polarized when they are reflected off the surface of the disk. In other words, X-rays from the accretion disk undergo gravitational lensing — showing that the same process that bends the light from distant galaxies is at work in a system billions of times less massive!
Citation
“An IXPE-led X-Ray Spectropolarimetric Campaign on the Soft State of Cygnus X-1: X-Ray Polarimetric Evidence for Strong Gravitational Lensing,” James F. Steiner et al 2024 ApJL 969 L30. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad58e4
By Kerry Hensley
